Causes and Treatments for Dyslexia: Overview of Theories

Causes and Treatments for Dyslexia: Overview of Theories A common definition of dyslexia states it is a specific difficulty in gaining literacy skills that occurs in people who otherwise appear to be developing normally (Snowling, 1987). It is thought to occur in between 3% and 10% of the population (Habib, 2000). Methods of treating and managing dyslexia have been largely influenced by theories about its aetiology. Three different types of explanations are examined here: the behavioural, the cognitive and the biological. Each of these suggests a contrasting approach to treatment. The cognitive approach to dyslexia can be seen in the phonological theory. This has one of the longest pedigrees amongst explanations for dyslexia and it suggests a deficit in working memory (Bradley Bryant, 1978). Specifically, this theory suggests that part of the short-term memory the phonological loop has a deficit causing dyslexics to have difficulties representing, storing and retrieving the sounds of speech. In order to learn to read, the theory argues, it is necessary to make connections between phonemes (the units of sounds that make up words) and graphemes (the units of letters that make up words). Problems in making this connection will tend to result in reading deficits. This cognitive explanation clearly suggests that strengthening the link between graphemes and phonemes will help those with dyslexia (Lyytinen, Erskine, Aro Richardson, 2007). Consequently there are a huge range of different interventions focussed on encouraging the learning of these connections. Ehri et al. (2001), reviewing these approaches, found they generally fall into three categories of interventions. The first are designed to break down the sounds in a word after it has been learnt. The second category are designed to help build up a word from its component sounds. The third take a more whole-language approach. When compared to other forms of intervention those based on phonics instruction, according to this meta-analysis, provide the best outcome for children. Despite this, other interventions are frequently recommended for those with dyslexia these stem from different explanations. One example of a more biological, rather than cognitive approach to dyslexia suggests the source of reading difficulties in this condition is related to deficiencies in the visual system (Lovegrove, Bowling, Badcock Blackwood, 1980). Specifically, this theory is based on findings about two particular visual pathways in the brain: the magnocellular and parvocellular. It is thought that it is the magnocellular pathway that is deficient (Stein Walsh, 1997). This is then thought to cause a variety of visual problems such as unstable eye fixations, poor vergence and visual crowding. It has been argued by Whiteley Smith (2001) that around half of those with dyslexia suffer from eye strain and distortion of text. A treatment for dyslexia suggested by the magnocellular theory is the use of coloured lenses. Irlen (1997) argues that the use of blue filters slows down the functioning of the faster parvocellular pathway, thereby stabilising the speed more in line with the slower magnocellular pathway. Early research such as that carried out by Jeaanes et al. (1997) found these overlays were preferred by children, although later research suggested this was a result of the placebo effect. Attempts to correct for these methodological problems have proved difficult with, for example, Robinson Foreman (1999) finding little support for the coloured lens approach specifically helping those with dyslexia. Along with cognitive and biological explanations for dyslexia have come those which focus on primarily behavioural causes. These can include a wide variety of different sources such as generally poor teaching, a poor relationship with a teacher or a home life that is disturbed (Morton Frith, 1995). Ridsdale (2004) has pointed out the connection between dyslexia and low self-esteem, behavioural difficulties, withdrawal and depression. Behavioural approaches to treatment, then, can aim to raise self esteem which can include changing goal orientations, giving praise, increasing the levels at which others provide support and so on. Metacognitive approaches help to provide ways of thinking about thinking this means teaching those with dyslexia to be able to monitor their thinking processes. Some of these behavioural interventions have been evaluated. Steinhausen and Metzke (2001), for example, found that peer group support could help those with behavioural difficulties. In conclusion, there a variety of cognitive, biological and behavioural explanations for dyslexia, each of which has different associated treatment or management options. In general each of the explanations explains some of the evidence from dyslexia but none of them explain all of it. This suggests that either theories are as yet incomplete, or there are methodological problems with the evaluations or there are different types of dyslexia to be explained. In practical terms, however, support and treatment for those with dyslexia often uses a multi-modal approach on the basis this is more likely to prove beneficial. References Bradley, L., Bryant, P. E. (1978) Difficulties in auditory organisation as a possible cause of reading backwardness. Nature, 271, 746-7. Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic Awareness Instruction Helps Children Learn to Read: Evidence from the National Reading Panels Meta-Analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250-287. Habib, M. (2000) The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia: an overview and working hypothesis. Brain, 123, 2373-2399. Irlen, H. (1997) Reading problems and Irlen coloured lenses. Dyslexia Review, Spring, 4-7. Jeanes, R., Busby, A., Martin, J., Lewis, E., Stevenson, N., Pointon, D., Wilkins A.J. (1997). Prolonged use of coloured overlays for classroom reading. British Journal of Psychology, 88, 531-548. Lovegrove, W.J., Bowling, A., Badcock, B., Blackwood, M. (1980) Specific reading disability: differences in contrast sensitivity as a function of spatial frequency. Science, 210, 439-40. Lyytinen, H., Erskine, J., Aro, M., Richardson, U., (2007) Reading and reading disorders. In: E. Hoff, M. Shatz, (Eds.). Blackwell Handbook of Language Development. London: Blackwell. Morton, J., Frith, U. (1995) Causal modelling: a structural approach to developmental psychopathology. In: D. Cicchetti, D. J. Cohen, (Eds.). Developmental psychopathology. Vol. 1, Theory and methods. London: Wiley. Ridsdale, J. (2004) Dyslexia and self-esteem. In: M. Turner, J. P. Rack (Eds.). The Study of Dyslexia. London: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Robinson, G. L., Foreman, P. J. (1999). Scotopic sensitivity/Irlen syndrome and the use of coloured filters: A long-term placebo controlled and masked study of reading achievement and perception of ability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 89, 83-113 Snowling, M. J. (1987). Dyslexia: A Cognitive Developmental Perspective. London: Blackwell. Stein, J., Walsh, V. (1997) To see but not to read: the magnocellular theory of dyslexia. Trends in Neuroscience 20, 147-52. Steinhausen, H.C., Metzke, C.W. (2001). Risk, Compensatory, Vulnerability, and Protective Factors Influencing Mental Health in Adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(3), 259-280. Whiteley, H. E., Smith, C. D. (2001) The use of tinted lenses to alleviate reading difficulties. Journal of Research in Reading, 24(1) 30-40.

Deviance and Social Control Essay

Deviance is part of every culture and society, it is the border line between acceptable and intolerable behavior. Each micro society holds it’s own definition as to what deviant behavior actually is. The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied, deviant behavior is behavior that people label. Through out history, there is no doubt in my mind that deviant citizens have been a contributing part to each generation. It is all relative, a label of deviance remains a label of deviance; the question that remains really is â€Å"what is deviance?†. Being labeled as an outside is not foreign for some people. Matter of fact it is acceptable and a norm to be labeled as deviant for some people. No matter what group of people you deal with through out history or life today, there are social rules written and sometimes unwritten, nonetheless meant to be broken. For example, freshman year I attended St. Rose High School and got caught texting my mom on my cellphone while switching classes. Getting to the point, I ended up losing my phone for a month and getting in a whole load of trouble (I was then silently labeled as â€Å"deviant† for the rest of my time there) for something as simple as texting. If I whipped my phone out in Manasquan High School 99% of the time teachers do not even say anything at all because they could care less. Such a backwards wrong act of defiance should be nationally recognized through out schools everywhere, but it’s not like that. Deviance is defined in so many different ways it not only differentiates from school to school, it changes in the eyes of parents too. For example, Johhny came home at 12:05am on Saturday night, and as a result got grounded for Saturday. Jessie strolled in at 12:30am on Friday night, and came home at 1:00am on Saturday with no troubles at all. What I’m trying to say is deviant behavior is not even a real thing, it is just defined by your surroundings. Am I the victim or the crime for getting all of these detentions? Am I really doing anything that terrible compared to everyone else? A lot of questions come up to me that are so simply understood by me I don’t even want to take the time to write about them or use my breath to express my opinion. In Mr. Roach’s class I wrote a paper in pen instead of typing it because my printer had malfunctioned (affirmed by a note from my dear mother) and Mr. Roach gave me a 0%, even though I did the entire paper by hand. Knowing me, Mr. Marden, of course I then acted deviantly by releasing the word F#@#$. I didn’t even say it towards Mr. Roach or loud so the class could hear it. I just said F%$#*. My act of defiance led to 2 days suspension. Since then, I have been counting every curse word I’ve heard by students and teachers in Manasquan High School sinc e then, and have seriously counted 647 curse words. Not one of those times did another student get F$%&ing suspended for two days. It’s all backwards. Fifty years ago if a girl wore a skirt that showed her knee caps people would assume she was a deviant girl. Nowadays girls wear skirts that show just about everything, and hey I’m fine with that and it seems everyone else is too. Deviant acts are just a definition by each generation. Things that were once unacceptable are now norms. Being gay 200 years ago was the same as being the devil. But now people generally accept it. All around the world deviance behavior is being redefined and rewritten but one thing always stays the same, and that is simply the fact that people will remain being deviant, no matter what the definition actually is. The idea of deviance would not even exist if it wasn’t for those types of people. (probably me too, but I’m just a deviant idiot that has no idea what I’m doing†¦)

Things You Wont Like About Essay Persuasive Writing Samples and Things You Will

Things You Won't Like About Essay Persuasive Writing Samples and Things You Will Which is precisely why we here offer you some persuasive essay samples that may assist you with your own. It isn't hard to get sidetracked and persuasive essay writing as there are many diverse perspectives which you may want to contemplate. So you're assigned with a persuasive essay but you need no clue what it appears like. You can search for a persuasive essay example and utilize it like a guide in writing of own essay. Persuasive essays are also referred to as argumentative. They have no paragraph limits. How can you write a great argumentative essay. To put it simply, an argumentative essay has to be based on cold hard facts that have been researched and are verifiable. The Basics of Essay Persuasive Writing Samples For this reason, you should give because many specifics and information regarding the particular aspects you intend to discuss in your essay. As it is, if you should use a persuasive essay template, after the very long search to find something dependent on the topic that you want to write about, it's still highly unlikely it will reflect your requirements adequately enough to secure you a nice grade. In your introduction paragraph, it is sufficient to introduce the topic and supply meaningful background info. In some instances, a topic might already be offered. When it has to do with writing one, you wish to make sure that you select a topic you will be passionate about or ob jective about. The issue with modern writing styles is that the majority authors do not appear to pay enough attention to readers' expectations. Every American should learn how to speak English. He should learn to speak Spanish. Use the following suggestions to help you write short essays employing persuasive writing. Don't forget that any argumentative essay sample you'll discover on the internet will require a full rewriting in order to prevent plagiarism. If you're searching for persuasive writing examples, look no more. There are lots of free examples of suitable formatting. Other goals include the demonstration of wonderful research abilities and deep understanding of the subject. There's a pool of subjects to pick from. Lastly, you should pick a topic which inspires you but which also supplies you with a large variety of materials to research. There are a lot of alternatives for you to pick which you'll be able to take from the numerous regions of study. Persuasi ve essays are among the most frequently encountered kind of assigned works whether before, during, or following your college life. Unlike topics for middle school or higher school, very good college topics are somewhat more challenging to discover. Students lead busy lives and frequently forget about an approaching deadline. There are many persuasive essay examples college students are able to make use of online. Essay Persuasive Writing Samples Options Kids need to be able to vote. Students ought to be permitted to pray in school. Teens should have the ability to pick their bedtime. They should be required to take parenting classes. A great writer must know more about the significance of great hook. Matt was great throughout the entire practice. On the flip side, a shorter work week may damage the capability to compete in the international workplace. Make sure you do plenty of research, especially if you would like to create a compelling and persuasive bit of writing. What You Should Do to Find Out About Essay Persuasive Writing Samples Before You're Left Behind Persuasive writing is extremely typical in advertising where marketing professionals attempt to convince you to purchase something. Thus, so as to assist you, below are some persuasive college essay help and ideas to begin. When you surf our site for recommendations that may help you write your own essay, you will discover many helpful tips. Do a little research about your topics and discover out which one inspires you the most. The Unexposed Secret of Essay Persuasive Writing Samples When compared to other sorts of literature out there, a persuasive college structure is distinguished by its effectiveness and concentrate on convincing the readers of somebody's point of view. The most important component which creates a persuasive essay in English stand out from the remainder of assignments is the use of reasoning. Before writing down the facts and examples that you're likely to t ackle, you ought to be well informed, first of all, about your topic. Most academic essay topics usually ask you to choose a side in an argument or maybe to defend a specific side against criticism. Essay Persuasive Writing Samples - the Story What's a persuasive speech. Our writers will finish your work from scratch so that it's totally original and totally free from any risks plagiarism. The issue with the death penalty isn't simply that of moral. Racial slurs ought to be illegal.

Lorenzo De Medici, The Most Important Ruler Of Florence

To many, the name Lorenzo de Medici just sounds like an irrelevant Italian man. At a closer look, Lorenzo was one of the most important people in the history of Italy. Born to Lucrezia Tornabuoni and Piero di Cosimo de Medici, Lorenzo ruled Florence from 1469 until his death in 1492 after his father’s death. He helped make Florence the most important city-state from 1469-1492. Lorenzo de Medici was the most important ruler of Florence because he formed political alliances to protect his people, he was a strong supporter of education, and he was an advocate to many great artists. Although there were many attacks on Florence, Lorenzo risked his life for the safety of his people. There are many recorded occasions where Lorenzo formed alliances to protect his people. Around 1474, the new Pope, Sixtus IV decided to seize the small city of Imola for his nephew. Imola had been loosely under Florentine control. Once it was taken, Lorenzo was determined to take action and safeguard t he towns near Imola. He formed an alliance with Venice and Milan in order to protect the peninsula s peace. The alliance led the pope’s anger toward Lorenzo to grow, which lead to an assassination attempt against Lorenzo and his brother, Giuliano de Medici. Lorenzo survived with wounds, but Giuliano was killed. Later on, Lorenzo did his best to keep Rome and Florence on good terms when Sixtus IV died. He did not want to repeat years of war with another pope. Immediately, he set out to get onShow MoreRelatedThe Medici Bank Essay2034 Words   |  9 PagesGiovanni di Bicci de’ Medici founded the Medici bank in 1397 after splitting from his nephew to establish a bank branch in Florence. As the new bank grew and expanded, so did the wealth and power of the Medici family. 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